RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF EARTH SCIENCES VOL. 9, ES1003, doi:10.2205/2007ES000222, 2007
[26] The above excerpts from Golovkinsky's work are truly impressive in terms of his large-scale scientific foresight and versatile analysis of the dynamic development of sedimentary basins.
[27] The most outstanding achievements related to this analysis can be listed as follows.
[29] In modelling the strata formation, Golovkinsky uses such notions as sea level, coastline, littoral rock mass (sedimentary material in the modern literature), and sea bottom variations. These notions were developed to become the basic ones in modern sequence stratigraphy and cyclostratigraphy.
[30] Golovkinsky introduced the notions of chronological, stratigraphical, petrographical and palaeontological horizons and studied the relationships between them anticipating the concept of isochrones that intersect, as he indicated, stratigraphical, petrographical and palaeontological boundaries.
[33] The rapid development of sequence stratigraphy was stimulated by achievements in seismic stratigraphy and borehole geophysics. The EXXON team headed by P. Vail found that relative sea-level changes over the Earth's history were the cause of the sedimentation in the zones of interaction between the land and the sea and in shallow and deep-water seas [Vail et al., 1977].
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Figure 2 |
[35] The formation of sequences is affected by the following three key factors [Einsele, 2000]: tectonics, eustasy and sedimentary material. Interrelations between these factors (their directions, rates, amplitudes and cyclicities) define the relative sea level.
[36] The basic principles of sequence stratigraphy are as follows:
[37] Relative sea-level or basic-level variations affect the sedimentation capacity and the movement of sedimentation centres towards the sea or the land. This leads to the formation of progradational and inverse facies series (system or facies tracts).
[38] The system tract consists of sediments from various sedimentary environments (marine and continental). System tracts can be subdivided into parasequences, each with their own specific characteristics.
[39] The interaction between sea level variations, sedimentary material supply, sediments buildup and various subsidence rates creates a variety of sequences. Their structures are defined by sea level variations of various frequencies and amplitudes and by the varying supply of sedimentary material.
[40] As it appears from Golovkinsky's model, the sedimentation is generally driven by relative sea level rises and the adequate amount of sedimentary material forming progradational sand bodies that occur in a bench-like manner. The landward or seaward migration of the littoral zone was governed by the interaction between sea level variations, sedimentary material supply, isostatic load and tectonic subsidence. If the subsidence rate is low and the amount of sedimentary material is insufficient, even very low rates of the eustatic level recession can reduce the sedimentary capacity and thus shift the littoral zone seawards. In the opposite way, fast sea level rises result in the sweeping flooding of littoral areas and in the landward movement of the coastal zone.
[41] This simple pattern varied substantially depending on the varying entry of sedimentary material. For example, abundant sedimentary material can fully prevent the littoral zone from migrating during the sea level rise.
[42] In the coastal areas, which are abundantly supplied with sand material, coastal sands reflect the relative sea-level fall and the seaward displacement of beach formations and barrier and lagoon complexes.
[43] The abundant supply of sedimentary material with a considerable fraction of sand results in the displacement of the coastline not only during the fall of the sea level but also in its steady state (normal regression). The littoral zone narrows and thickens to form spatially uniform bodies adjoining the erosion surface (regressive time lag) due to the activity of sea waves. If the level rise is fast (i.e. if the rate of eustatic changes is higher than rates of the sedimentary material supply and the basin depression), the coastline rapidly moves landwards.
[44] However, these are only a few of those numerous models that are created today for various conditions.
[45] And it should be emphasised again that the first such model was created by N. A. Golovkinsky.
[47] Geological reconstructions are always based on the stratification and correlation. Stratigraphic correlation is the demonstration of the equivalency of stratigraphic units. Correlation is an integral part of stratigraphy, and stratigraphers mainly aim at developing the stratigraphic basis that allows the regional and global correlation. Stratigraphy does not make sense without correlation.
[48] In spite of the fact that stratigraphy and correlation exist more than 150 years, there are different views of what correlation is. Two viewpoints on correlation have been historically formed. According to one of them, correlation is the demonstration of the equivalency of units that were formed during one period. Respectively, finding that two lithostratigraphic units are lithologically equivalent is not correlation. Golovkinsky was a supporter of this strict viewpoint on correlation. A more liberal approach permits the correlation on the basis of various criteria: lithological, palaeontological or chronological. In other words, two units can be correlated as belonging to the same lithostratigraphic or biostratigraphic unit even if these are of different ages. Most geologists are naturally inclined to share the latter approach for pragmatic reasons. For instance, petroleum geologists routinely correlate subsurface strata using the lithology, borehole logging signatures or characteristics of seismic reflections. By the 1980s, three key types of correlation had been formed:
[49] The interrelation between chronocorrelation and lithocorrelation should be given special attention. Chronocorrelation only determines whether the correlated units are of the same age. Same units can be locally correlated both lithologically and chronostratigraphically but some lithostratigraphic and chronological boundaries may intersect one another on a regional scale. Stratigraphic units, formed during major transgressions and regressions, are excellent examples of intersecting isochrones and lithological boundaries.
[50] The history of science gives numerous examples of the rejection of outstanding discoveries and ideas. Until the middle of the 19th century, geology was a purely descriptive science, and this fact makes the revolutionary character of Golovkinsky's analytical conclusions and theoretical principles even more remarkable. His achievements were not adequately understood or appreciated at that time. These have been confirmed by newly acquired data only recently.
[51] G. I. Sokratov, who played a major role in bringing Golovkinsky's work to light, wrote that this was accomplished "on the highest theoretical level that permitted him to be several decades ahead of international geological science of that time" [Sokratov, 1949; page 50].
[52] Golovkinsky's scientific legacy was filled with outstanding ideas, rediscovered both in the 20th and in the 21st centuries. This phenomenon can best be described using the following excerpt from Golovkinsky's work:
[53] "Basic principles in science change as slowly and insensibly as geological faunas - regressing and progressing, appearing in various facies - and it is as difficult to find a point on a winding curve at which the major faunal change occurs as to identify a turning point in the gradual change of opinions." (Pages 135-136).
Citation: 2007), The Golovkinsky strata formation model, basic facies law and sequence stratigraphy concept: Historical sources and relations, Russ. J. Earth Sci., 9, ES1003, doi:10.2205/2007ES000222.
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