RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF EARTH SCIENCES VOL. 8, ES4001, doi:10.2205/2006ES000203, 2006
[18] It is well known that modern structure of the platform comprises basement and sedimentary cover. Basement outcrops on the platform surface form two large shields: the Baltic and the Ukrainian ones. In the east the largest part of East European platform is occupied by the Russian plate which comprises deposits from the Riphean to Cenozoic. Traditionally basing on the basement surface depth large tectonic elements such as anteclises and syneclises could be recognized within the platform structure. The central part is occupied by the Moscow syneclise which stretches from Uralian to Valdai. The Baltic syneclise which opens into the West Europe is located westerly. The north-eastern and south-eastern flanks of the platform are occupied by Pechorskaya and Pricaspian syneclises, which nowadays are more often classified as basins. And at least, the L'vovsko-Lublinskiy downwarp (Ukrainian syneclise) stretches along the Carpathians to the South-West. The Voronezhskaya and the Volgo-Uralian anteclises predominate among positive structural elements in the Russian plate territory. The Ukrainian anteclise occupying the Ukrainian shield and adjacent areas also belongs to them.
[19] Several structural stages could be recognized on the basis of main angle disconformities and changes is structural plans [Garetsky, 1991; Zhuravlev, 1972]. Each of them contains smaller structural elements of different level. Age boundaries between large structural complexes could vary in different parts of the territory, but it is possible to trace general boundaries throughout the entire plate.
[20] The largest structural complexes are 1) Riphean, 2) Vendian to Lower Devonian, 3) Middle Devonian to Permian, and 4) Mesozoic to Cenozoic. We discuss only first three of them in the paper.
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Figure 4 |
[22] The most sharp change could be identified at the boundary between the Early and Middle Vendian. Rift structures (aulacogens) are dominant among the Riphean and Early Vendian structures. Thickness of infilling deposits in such aulacogens is 10 km to 12 km [Shakhnovsky, 1988].
[23] These rift basins are bordered with large-scale faults of first kilometers in amplitude and hundreds kilometers in length. Riphean rifts could be divided into four groups differing in their spatial location (Figure 2). A system of adjacent rifts stretches from the North-East to the South-West almost across the entire Russian plate. This system is bordered by the Soligalichsko-Yaremskiy rift in the North-East, and by the Volynskiy basin in the South-East. The latter does not demonstrate definitely expressed fault boundaries. The Moscow aulacogen which is parallel to this system could be attributed to it.
[24] Three rifts occupying the north-western flank of the Russian plate have south-eastern strike (Ladozhskiy, Onego-Kandalakshskiy, and Leshukonskiy) [Shakhnovsky, 1988]. Their northern ends could be traced into the territory of the Baltic shield and practically have not been expressed in the development of younger structures.
[25] Another paleorift system could be recognized in the eastern part of the East European platform [Sharipov, 1975]. The Kamsko-Kinel'skiy and similar in strike Vyatskiy paleorifts are parallel to the Uralian paleoocean. In spite of the fact that the Sernovodsko-Abdulinskiy aulacogen is directly adjacent to the Kamsko-Kinel'skaya system of grabens it is somewhat discordant with this system. Finally, the last system is composed by the Dneprovo-Donetskiy and the Ryazano-Saratovskiy (Pachelmskiy) aulacogens stretched subparallel in the north-western direction [Lukin et al., 1992; Proskuryakov et al., 1989; Shakhnovsky, 1988]. As far as these aulacogens open into the Pricaspian basin they are possibly connected with its Riphean structure. They predetermined delimitation of the three largest positive structures in the south-east of EEP: Ukrainian, Voronezhskiy, and Volgo-Uralian ones.
[26] The Pricaspian and the Pechorskiy basins occupy a specific place in Riphean structure of the platform. The data on Riphean history of the Pricaspian basin is very limited that only permits to suppose either the presence of paleorift system [Malushin, 1987] or the existence of large individual downwarps connected with the surrounding basins (particularly with the Uralian paleoocean) [Volozh, 1990]. The folding cycle in the Pechorskiy basin had been completed during Riphean and could not be correlated with initial stages in the formation of the Russian plate sedimentary cover [Dedeev et al., 1986; Getsen, 1991].
[27] Beginning from the Middle Vendian the total subsidence of EEP territory occurred. In the beginning it occupied the north-eastern flanks, stretching from the Pechorskaya depression to the south-west up to the L'vovsko-Pridnestrovskaya zone of subsidence. Vendian deposits are absent in the Byelorussian syneclise as well as across the entire south-eastern margin of the platform which includes Ukranian and Volgo-Uralian anteclises. The most significant subsidence was restricted to the axial zone of the Riphean Soligalichsko-Yaremskiy aulacogen.
[28] The discordance in Vendian structural plan with the previous structures is evident. A very gentle Vendian monocline is located crosswise to the northern group of Riphean grabens. The Soligalichskaya anticline is restricted to central part of the Soligalichsko-Yaremskiy graben, while to the west and east from it syneclises are located along the strike of the ancient structure. We traced the closing of the Lubimsko-Soligalichskaya anticline in the northern part of the Valdaiskiy graben.
[29] The northern flank of the Byelorussian anteclise is located in the southern part of the graben. Riphean Moscowskiy and Ryazano-Saratovskiy aulacogens have no significant expression in Vendian structural plan. The Oksko-Tsninskaya anticline corersponds to the branch of the same name within the Ryazano-Saratovskiy aulacogen.
[30] To the east in Priural'e at the former location of Riphean Kamsko-Kinel'skaya system of depressions two anticlines (Permskaya and Bashkirskaya) are oriented crosswise to the ancient strike. A negative structure corresponding to the Vyatskiy graben is partly preserved northerly. It is surrounded from both sides by Sysol'skaya and Komi-Permyatskaya anticlines. Vendian monocline corresponds to Sernovodsko-Abdulinskiy aulacogen.
[31] In the Early to the Middle Paleozoic the subsidence area has increased. This event was characterized by differentiation in rates of sedimentation. In Ordovician to Silurian maximum values occurred in the south-western flank of the platform where the new L'vovsko-Pridnestrovskaya depression (the zone of pericratonic subsidence) was formed and the Baltic syneclise was located to the north from it where the subsidence areas have not been compensated by sediments [Garetsky et al., 1990]. Beginning from the Devonian, these structures of the cover were inactive.
[32] The next stage of subsidence started in Permian and only within the Baltic syneclise. In the east significant areas were involved in subsidence during the Ordovician to Silurian. Within the Pechorskaya depression this process was accompanied by the formation of local platform structures.
[33] Since the middle Devonian central and eastern parts of the Russian plate became the main area of subsidence. Sedimentation was absent only at the White sea coast, within the Ukrainian shield and in the narrow band along southern slope of the Voronezhskaya anteclise. During Devonian substage the majority of structures inherited Vendian ones. First of all these are synclines and anticlines of the Moscow syneclise axial part and Priuralian structures (Permian and Bashkirian anticlines). At the same time either formation of new structural forms or inversion of movements along previous structures occurred during Devonian stage.
[34] New structures can be represented by the Tokmovskaya and Balakovskaya anticlines as well as by the system of uplifts near the Tatarskaya anticline (Figure 3). The Zhigulevskaya anticline corresponds to the southern termination of Riphean Sernovodsko-Abdulinskiy aulacogen. Adjacent Melekesskaya syncline was generally restricted to the northern boundary of the same aulacogen. The Umetovsko-Linevskiy downwarp arised to the west from the Pricaspian basin. The Devonian Vyatskaya anticline was formed directly along its axis. Sysol'skaya and Verkhnekamskaya synclines inherited the place of the former location of Vendian positive structures. The northernmost Peshskaya syncline existed northerly at the place of elongataed Vendian downwarp which included Vychegodskaya, Safonovskaya, and Peshskaya synclines.
[35] New stage of rifting occurred in middle Devonian. Dneprovo-Donetskiy aulacogen completely coincided with the area of Riphean aulacogen of the same name. The Pripyatskiy graben accompanied it in Devonian. The westernmost part of this graben crossed Riphean structure of the Volyno-Orshanskiy downwarp. New rifts were formed within the Pechorskiy basin [Dedeev, 1982]. There is no clear evidence (possibly due to the lack of data) on the direct connection with structures of ancient horizons of the cover.
[36] During Devonian the Pricaspian basin had outlines similar in shape to the recent one and developed as a non-compensated area of submergence with maximum subsidence in the Late Devonian [Volozh, 1990; Yanshin et al., 1979]. Uplifts of the basement (Astrakhanskiy arch, etc.) formed along its peripheral parts. Being a small oceanic basin the Pricaspian basin was most probably connected with Paleozoic oceans: Uralian and Paleo-Tethys.
[37] Non-compensated basins were widely presented during Vendian to the Middle Paleozoic but irregularly distributed in the platform territory [Garetsky et al., 1991]. Along south-western flank of EEP these basins developed within the Baltic-Pridnestrovskaya zone of pericratonic subsidence. The most significant stages of non-compensated downwarp in Baltic and Volynskiy basons occurred in Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian. Boundaries of sedimentary basins changed during these stages. The Baltic non-compensated downwarp reached the maximum size in Ordovician with subsequent gradual decrease. On the contrary the Volynskiy downwarp increased through Ordovician to Silurian. During the most part of Devonian such downwarps were absent in the south-west of EEP.
[38] In the eastern part of the platform the maximum of non-compensated subsidence occurred in the Late Devonian near the Uralian mobile belt. Within the Pechorskiy basin the main zone of submergence was situated close to Urals and had a stable eastern boundary. Its area decreased in the west direction during the Frasnian and late Famennian stages (Figure 4).
[39] To the south the huge non-compensated isometric Pricaspian basin was located southerly. It existed in the Late Devonian and continued its development in the Carboniferous and Early Permian (Figure 4). Its boundaries did not correspond to boundaries of the Pricaspian syneclise and, as a rule, were shifted to center of negative structure. Upper Devonian Umetovsko-Linevskiy downwarp is located to the west from the Pricaspian basin being connected with it by the narrow strait. It coincides in space with the area of Riphean Dono-Medveditskiy graben.
[40] The Pripyatsko-Dneprovo-Donetskiy graben is an example of the most complete coincidence of the formation of non-compensated downwarping with rifting process. Here the non-compensated sedimentation was most active in late Frasnian to Famennian and then continued in the Carboniferous and Early Permian. During the Late Devonian the main phase was subdivided in several subphases of non-compensated and compensated sedimentation. The downwarping began in the south-eastern flank of the structure in the Donbass area and up to the Late Frasnian gradually invaded areas to the North-East towards the Pripyatskiy graben. The depression with maximum depth up to 600-700 m in the central part was formed in the Famennian on the territory of the Pricaspian graben. It is possible that similar environments also existed in other non-compensated downwarps of the Dneprovo-Donetskiy rift.
[41] Thus, the formation of sedimentary cover of EEP since Riphean through the end of Paleozoic was accompanied by several structural reconstructions of different significance. The principle change in structural pattern occurred at Early to Late Vendian boundary. This period was characterized by the replacement of contrasting in subsiding amplitudes rift structures (aulacogens) with more gentle platform structures. During Riphean the platform was in a conditions of a stretching that were changed later by epeirogenesis with different structural and geomorphological expression. These movements were differentiated in time and caused changes of the structural pattern. But the main feature of these reconstructions consists in the development of inversion processes. At the same time outlines and localities of structures did not change as a rule. Only in individual cases it is possible to observe small lateral shift of anticlinal arch or lower part of syncline. During Vendian through Paleozoic the areas of inversion were connected with some Riphean rifts. These are restricted to the southern part of the Soligalichsko-Yaremskiy and Vyatskiy rifts as well as to the Oksko-Tsninskaya branch of the Ryazano-Saratovskiy rift. Other Riphean structures and their parts either have no expression in the cover structures or negative movements continued on their territories (Kamsko-Bel'skiy aulacogen, etc.).
[42] Thus, the formation of sedimentary cover of EEP since Riphean through the end of Paleozoic was accompanied by several structural reconstructions of different significance. The principle change in structural pattern occurred at Early to Late Vendian boundary. This period was characterized by the replacement of contrasting in subsiding amplitudes rift structures (aulacogens) with more gentle platform structures. During Riphean the platform was in a conditions of a stretching that were changed later by epeirogenesis with different structural and geomorphological expression. These movements were differentiated in time and caused changes of the structural pattern. But the main feature of these reconstructions consists in the development of inversion processes. At the same time outlines and localities of structures did not change as a rule. Only in individual cases it is possible to observe small lateral shift of anticlinal arch or lower part of syncline. During Vendian through Paleozoic the areas of inversion were connected with some Riphean rifts. These are concentrated in the southern part of the Soligalichsko-Yaremskiy and Vyatskiy rifts as well as to the Oksko-Tsninskaya branch of the Ryazano-Saratovskiy rift. Other Riphean structures have no expression in the cover structures or negative movements continued on their territories (Kamsko-Bel'skiy aulacogen, etc.).
[43] Zones of inversion tend to locate in the proximity to Riphean rifts shoulders. This is most expressive in the area of the Vyatskiy aulacogen, where Vendian anticlines were replaced by Devonian synclines on the same very area. In the Carboniferous inversion took place within the Pechorskiy basin. The southern part of the Laiskaya anticline crosses the central part of the graben. At the same time Carboniferous to Permian monocline, complicated by structural noses and inlets, is located above the Devonian Timanskiy rift.
[44] There is significant dispersion of inversion processes through time. Sometimes changes in movements occurred immediately after the end of aulacogen formation (ex.: Vendian anticlines on Riphean Soligalichsko-Yaremskiy and Oksko-Tzninskiy aulacogens). In other cases inversion took place after hundreds millions years and in adjacent territories. This is characteristic of southern part of Ryazano-Saratovskiy aulacogen where the southern part of the Oksko-Tsninskaya anticline was formed in Devonian after the existence of the pre-Devonian uplift that occupied territory from the Voronezhskaya anteclise to the southern part of the Volgo-Uralian anteclise.
[45] The main structure of the Russian plate cover was formed during Riphean, Vendian to the Early and middle Paleozoic and the Late Paleozoic stages. Later stages were mainly characterized by the formation of large syneclises.
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Figure 5 |
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Figure 7 |
[47] The application of the factor analysis to the maps of thicknesses of EEP sediments revealed eight significant factors (Tables 1, 2, and 3) mapped in Figure 7. As a result, using the factor analysis, 8 sedimentation areas were delineated for 24 epochs of sedimentation. The most stable areas with the longest development of sedimentation are observed in T1-J2 and (to a lesser extent) in K1-K2. The shortest sedimentation interval existed in the Late Jurassic (J3 ). The sedimentation basins changed their structure 10 times over this time. Moreover, the former basin structure was recovered in O1, D1, and K1.
[48] The correlation and factor analyses of the five structural EEP maps (Figures 2, 3, 6, Tables 4 and 5) yielded different results. The direct examination (Table 4) reveals the presence of positive correlations between some structural plans, for example, between the Vendian and the Artinskian stage of the Permian and between the Upper Devonian (the Sartanian horizon of the Frasnian) and the Middle Carboniferous (the Vereyan horizon of the Moscovian). Different results are obtained from the factor analysis, which is a finer method of identifying correlative links (Table 5).
[49] All interrelations are expressed in only two factors, with the contribution of the first factor amounting to 53%, which is a very good result. The first factor implies that the structural plans of the Vendian, Upper Devonian and Middle Carboniferous are closely interrelated. However, the most remarkable inference is that, according to the second factor, a strong correlation exists between the depth to the EEP basement and the top of the Artinskian deposits. This is unexpected because it is generally acknowledged that the main structural features of the EEP sedimentary cover are associated with the basement depth. To fully comprehend these results, similar studies should be performed in relation to inversions in distributions of both thicknesses and structural plans of the EEP sedimentary cover.
[50] Thus, a few variously significant structural reorganizations took place during the formation of the sedimentary cover of the Russian plate from the Riphean to the end of the Paleozoic. Structural plans changed dramatically at the Early Riphean/Late Vendian boundary. At this time, rifting structures (aulacogens) with contrasting amplitudes of downwarping were transformed into flatter platform structures. Accordingly, the Riphean platform was in the state of extension later replaced by platform epeirogeny characterized by different structural and geomorphologic features. However, the main characteristic of the reorganization was the development of inversion processes that commonly did not change the outlines and position of structures. In only a few cases was the position of an anticline crest or the deepest part of a syncline displaced for small lateral distances [Grachev et al., 1994].
[51] The Vendian inversion zones are associated with some Riphean rifts. They are confined to the southern Soligalich-Yarem rift, the Vyatka rift, and the Oka-Tsna branch of the Ryazan-Saratov rift. As regards the other Riphean structures and their parts, either they had no signatures in the cover structure or negative movements still continues within their areas (e.g. the Kama-Belsk aulacogen). The inversion zones tend to localize near shoulders of Riphean rifts. This is most evident in the Vyatka aulacogen, where Vendian anticlines give way to Devonian synclines within the same area. In the Carboniferous, the inversion took place within the Pechora basin. Here platform anticlines formed along the boundaries of the Devonian Pechora-Kozhva graben and involved even rift areas.
[52] In its southern part, the Laiskaya anticline crosses the central segment of the graben. The Devonian Timanskiy rift is overlain by a Carboniferous-Permian monocline complicated by structural noses and bays [Grachev et al., 1994].
[53] Comparison of the inversion processes reveals a rather wide scatter in time. In some cases, the movements change immediately after the termination of aulacogen development, as is the case, for example, with Vendian anticlines on the Riphean Soligalich-Yarem and Oka-Tsna aulacogens. In other cases, the inversion occurs a few hundred million years later and, moreover, in adjacent areas. This situation took place in the southern Ryazan-Saratov aulacogen, where the southern part of the Oka-Tsna anticline formed in the Devonian after the existence of a vast pre-Devonian uplift encompassing the territory from the Voronezh anteclise to the southern part of the Volga-Urals anteclise [Grachev et al., 1994].
[54] The main structure of the Russian plate cover formed during the Riphean, Vendian to Lower-Middle Paleozoic, and Upper Paleozoic epochs. Vast syneclises mainly developed in later periods.
[55] In addition to the thicknesses, we examined such a parameter as the thickness gradient estimated from the same initial data. The values of the correlation matrix of gradients are given in Table 6, whereas Table 7 presents the inferred values of the correlation matrix factor loadings. This table gives somewhat different results as compared with the analysis of thicknesses, but similarities between the corresponding factors prevail. For example, the first thickness factor (the greatest loads in T1-3 and J1-2 ) is similar to the second thickness gradient factor (the greatest loads in T2-T3 and J1-2 ). The latest Jurassic (J3 ) is also classified as a separate factor uncorrelated with the others. The Cambrian is joined with the Lower Devonian in the same factor. Probably, this might be expected because the thickness gradients are derivatives of thicknesses.
Citation: 2006), East European platform development in the Late Precambrian and Paleozoic: Structure and sedimentation, Russ. J. Earth Sci., 8, ES4001, doi:10.2205/2006ES000203.
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